Newhaven Defences
from 1860 to 1970
The Palmerston Victorian Fort
Lieutenant Ardagh - The man who built the Fort.
Newhaven Fort is an innovative design concept - formed in the fertile mind of its brilliant 22-year-old designer Lieutenant John Charles Ardagh.
After just three years in commission, Ardagh, son of a parson, was placed in charge of building Newhaven Fort and arrived at the engineer office in Brighton in May 1862 to commence design work. Building work started in 1864 and Ardagh was allocated a work force of 250 men, many horses and three steam engines to aid construction. Normal procedure was
to flatten the land and build a fort on top, but Ardagh opted to blend his design into the contours of the land; this he did very successfully and today it is still very inconspicuous from the surrounding area.
Surrounded on two sides by a deep, wide moat and on the other two sides by a cliff, Newhaven Fort must have been an impregnable bastion against attack, especially when the new guns were installed.
One of the reasons why the Fort is of great national importance and scheduled as an ancient monument is because Ardagh used concrete for the first time in a military structure. The shingle from the beach below was lifted by a hoist to the
top of the cliffs 120 feet above and used to make the concrete. His innovations continued at the fort’s main entrance where he built and patented his “Equilibrium Bridge” which was raised and lowered by the means of counter weights,
completely covering the entrance when closed so that attack was much more difficult than against a traditional drawbridge.
In addition to his undoubted engineering genius, Ardagh also had considerable artistic talent - this was evident by the beautifully executed design drawings produced for the fort. Most of the six million bricks used in the fort’s construction
were made using clay dug in Newhaven close by the fort. When fired, those bricks closest to the heat were red coloured whilst those further away were yellow. Ardagh used this colour variation to create “pleasing patterns”, most obviously seen over the casemate windows.
Ardagh remained personally in charge until 1868, when he left to take up an appointment as secretary to the Committee on coastal defences. Work on the fort was completed in the summer of 1871 and the guns fired for the first time in
1873. Ardagh died on September 30th, 1907 with the rank of Major General.
Newhaven Fort is an innovative design concept - formed in the fertile mind of its brilliant 22-year-old designer Lieutenant John Charles Ardagh.
After just three years in commission, Ardagh, son of a parson, was placed in charge of building Newhaven Fort and arrived at the engineer office in Brighton in May 1862 to commence design work. Building work started in 1864 and Ardagh was allocated a work force of 250 men, many horses and three steam engines to aid construction. Normal procedure was
to flatten the land and build a fort on top, but Ardagh opted to blend his design into the contours of the land; this he did very successfully and today it is still very inconspicuous from the surrounding area.
Surrounded on two sides by a deep, wide moat and on the other two sides by a cliff, Newhaven Fort must have been an impregnable bastion against attack, especially when the new guns were installed.
One of the reasons why the Fort is of great national importance and scheduled as an ancient monument is because Ardagh used concrete for the first time in a military structure. The shingle from the beach below was lifted by a hoist to the
top of the cliffs 120 feet above and used to make the concrete. His innovations continued at the fort’s main entrance where he built and patented his “Equilibrium Bridge” which was raised and lowered by the means of counter weights,
completely covering the entrance when closed so that attack was much more difficult than against a traditional drawbridge.
In addition to his undoubted engineering genius, Ardagh also had considerable artistic talent - this was evident by the beautifully executed design drawings produced for the fort. Most of the six million bricks used in the fort’s construction
were made using clay dug in Newhaven close by the fort. When fired, those bricks closest to the heat were red coloured whilst those further away were yellow. Ardagh used this colour variation to create “pleasing patterns”, most obviously seen over the casemate windows.
Ardagh remained personally in charge until 1868, when he left to take up an appointment as secretary to the Committee on coastal defences. Work on the fort was completed in the summer of 1871 and the guns fired for the first time in
1873. Ardagh died on September 30th, 1907 with the rank of Major General.
Newhaven Fort as it was in the 1960's, ruined, abandoned and neglected.
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Newhaven Fort as it is today; a thriving heritage museum.
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THE WORKING FORT
The fort as originally conceived, was designed to mount 42 smooth bore guns, but by completion in 1871, artillery development had advanced to the point that rifled ordnance was actually fitted.
In 1859, William Armstrong (1) produced a rifled breech loader of revolutionary design which was far more accurate and out ranged any smooth bore in existence, but these early breech loaders were not a very practical proposition, as the engineers of the time could not produce an efficient breech locking mechanism. Following experiments in 1864, coastal armament concentrated on rifled muzzle loaders, also designed by Armstrong, and later modified by Robert Fraser. These Armstrong -Fraser guns were extremely heavy, and to increase their resistance to bursting, a heated coil of metal was shrunk round the cast barrel, giving them their typical shape.
The basic fort as it was completed still exists much the same today and most of the original buildings can still be seen. It was described in the fort record book as being "built of brick with an irregular lunette trace, the gorge and right flank being protected by a wide ditch and escarp wall 30ft high. The front and left flanks protected by cliffs. The ditch is protected by counterscarp galleries and a large brick caponier at the SE angle".
The entrance to the fort itself was situated in the northern rampart and reached via a drawbridge over the ditch. The gateway was closed off by wooden double doors covered by steel plate, which could be barricaded from within by a heavy timber beam. Had the fort ever been subjected to a regular siege by a well established army equipped with siege artillery, it could have put up a fairly lengthy resistance.
The water supply was originally from a well house situated outside the north west corner of the fort, which would have course fallen into enemy hands, but the internal tankage capacity was 84,738 gallons; quite enough for the projected garrison of 300 men for quite some while. The pump from these tanks still exists and was manufactured by Messrs. T. Taylor and Sons, Engineers, London.
All living accommodation was in bombproof casemates under the ramparts of the northern and eastern faces, although the original estimate of 300 men was not adhered to.
On completion, the garrison on a war footing was as follows:
Officers 3
Mess staff 1
Master Gunner 1
NCO's 2
Married men 4
Men 128
Total 139 men
The fort as originally conceived, was designed to mount 42 smooth bore guns, but by completion in 1871, artillery development had advanced to the point that rifled ordnance was actually fitted.
In 1859, William Armstrong (1) produced a rifled breech loader of revolutionary design which was far more accurate and out ranged any smooth bore in existence, but these early breech loaders were not a very practical proposition, as the engineers of the time could not produce an efficient breech locking mechanism. Following experiments in 1864, coastal armament concentrated on rifled muzzle loaders, also designed by Armstrong, and later modified by Robert Fraser. These Armstrong -Fraser guns were extremely heavy, and to increase their resistance to bursting, a heated coil of metal was shrunk round the cast barrel, giving them their typical shape.
The basic fort as it was completed still exists much the same today and most of the original buildings can still be seen. It was described in the fort record book as being "built of brick with an irregular lunette trace, the gorge and right flank being protected by a wide ditch and escarp wall 30ft high. The front and left flanks protected by cliffs. The ditch is protected by counterscarp galleries and a large brick caponier at the SE angle".
The entrance to the fort itself was situated in the northern rampart and reached via a drawbridge over the ditch. The gateway was closed off by wooden double doors covered by steel plate, which could be barricaded from within by a heavy timber beam. Had the fort ever been subjected to a regular siege by a well established army equipped with siege artillery, it could have put up a fairly lengthy resistance.
The water supply was originally from a well house situated outside the north west corner of the fort, which would have course fallen into enemy hands, but the internal tankage capacity was 84,738 gallons; quite enough for the projected garrison of 300 men for quite some while. The pump from these tanks still exists and was manufactured by Messrs. T. Taylor and Sons, Engineers, London.
All living accommodation was in bombproof casemates under the ramparts of the northern and eastern faces, although the original estimate of 300 men was not adhered to.
On completion, the garrison on a war footing was as follows:
Officers 3
Mess staff 1
Master Gunner 1
NCO's 2
Married men 4
Men 128
Total 139 men
An early 20th Century photograph of the fort probably showing the northern defensive ditch.
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An early 20th Century photograph of the fort possibly showing the Haxo casemate.
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Newhaven Fort aerial photograph taken on 25th July 1940. The fort has been little used since the Great War and this photograph shows very little development of the site.
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Newhaven Fort aerial photograph taken on 5th April 1951. There is much more evidence of military construction in the fort and the railway line is clearly visible.
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As far as offensive firepower is concerned the fort was conceived and built during a period of transition from smooth bore to rifled ordnance as has been previously stated. The armament actually mounted on completion, and in place in 1884 was as follows:
Seaward Front
3x 10inch RML Guns on wrought iron dwarf traversing platforms. RML = Rifled Muzzle Loader
6x 9inch RML Guns on wrought iron dwarf traversing platforms.
Eastern Front
2x 9inch RML Guns on Moncrieff counterweight carriages. These two guns were unique to Newhaven Fort and were not fitted to other forts.
Land Front
1x 64pdr RML Gun in casemate on traversing wooden platform. In the Haxo position.
2x 13inch Mortars on cast iron permanent mounts; Terreplein E.
Lower Sea Front
4x 64pdr RML Guns on dwarf traversing wooden platforms; Lower E battery.
As far as the Moncrieff carriage is concerned, this was developed by Colonel Moncrieff in the late l870's as an answer to the problem of guns mounted "en barbette" being exceedingly vulnerable, as well as their crews. He utilised the disappearing principle, whereby the gun was lowered for loading into a deep pit which protected the crew and only raised at the moment of firing. These carriages were used at many places in our coast defences, but were later superseded by the more efficient hydro-pneumatic carriage which was used in conjunction with the new generation of breech loaders.
Major Sydenham Clarke in his treatise on fortification published in 1890, refers to the two Newhaven Moncrieff's as being the last two in use in the U.K. and one of them being on top of a "species of demi-Martello tower, which rather reduced its usefulness". The idea of mounting a gun on a carriage designed for concealment, on top of a tower does seem to be the height of folly.
Seaward Front
3x 10inch RML Guns on wrought iron dwarf traversing platforms. RML = Rifled Muzzle Loader
6x 9inch RML Guns on wrought iron dwarf traversing platforms.
Eastern Front
2x 9inch RML Guns on Moncrieff counterweight carriages. These two guns were unique to Newhaven Fort and were not fitted to other forts.
Land Front
1x 64pdr RML Gun in casemate on traversing wooden platform. In the Haxo position.
2x 13inch Mortars on cast iron permanent mounts; Terreplein E.
Lower Sea Front
4x 64pdr RML Guns on dwarf traversing wooden platforms; Lower E battery.
As far as the Moncrieff carriage is concerned, this was developed by Colonel Moncrieff in the late l870's as an answer to the problem of guns mounted "en barbette" being exceedingly vulnerable, as well as their crews. He utilised the disappearing principle, whereby the gun was lowered for loading into a deep pit which protected the crew and only raised at the moment of firing. These carriages were used at many places in our coast defences, but were later superseded by the more efficient hydro-pneumatic carriage which was used in conjunction with the new generation of breech loaders.
Major Sydenham Clarke in his treatise on fortification published in 1890, refers to the two Newhaven Moncrieff's as being the last two in use in the U.K. and one of them being on top of a "species of demi-Martello tower, which rather reduced its usefulness". The idea of mounting a gun on a carriage designed for concealment, on top of a tower does seem to be the height of folly.
A 9 inch RML gun at Newhaven Fort on a Moncrieff mounting shown in the lowered loading position.
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A 9 inch RML gun at Newhaven Fort on a Moncrieff mounting shown in the raised firing position with crew standing by.
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The clever design of the Moncrieff mounting showing how the 12 ton gun could be raised and lowered inside its protective barbette.
The design of the large calibre RML guns underwent many changes. Earlier models like the Mk1 were prone to bursting often with devastating results. The Mk 4 & 5 versions were heavily re enforced with extra steel banding added around the firing chamber but this greatly increased the overall weight.
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Types of shell:
Top - Standard HE.
Middle - Armour Piercing.
Bottom - Shrapnel.
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The other gun mountings were all variations of the traversing platform, introduced into service in Great Britain towards the end of the 18th century. This consisted of a platform, sloping upward toward the rear to help absorb the shock of recoil, which was pivoted at the front and swivelled through about 45° on trolley wheels running on iron rails at the rear. On top of this was a truck carriage which ran back on the platform with the recoil, into the loading position. All these guns were mounted “en barbette", that is to say, in the open and firing over a parapet, except for the one in the Haxo casemate in the NW Corner. A Haxo (2) casemate is basically a barbette emplacement, covered over with a bombproof mound, whereby the gun then fires through an embrasure. It has the disadvantage of having a limited arc of fire, but affords protection to the weapon and crew from plunging fire.
The ammunition supply for the fort was kept in the Grand Magazine and the East Magazine, with expense magazines and ready use lockers for the individual guns. The Grand Magazine itself, which had a capacity of 1,356 barrels of black powder, was situated under the west rampart, and consisted of two chambers vented via the roof, and surrounded by an illumination passage. This was a narrow corridor with a number of glass fronted niches.
In these were placed the oil lamps that illuminated the magazine from outside, without the danger of fire. Opposite the exit from the magazine was the laboratory, built in under the large mound on the parade. This was a chamber, entirely panelled in wood, and also surrounded by an illumination passage. It was originally fitted with work benches, and in it, cartridge filling and fuse cutting operations were carried out.
The eastern magazine complex, situated under the officer’s casemates in the east rampart, had two functions. Firstly to supply to the 64pdr's on the lower east battery, and secondly the two Moncrieff guns on the rampart above. The magazine consisted of four main chambers with a number of subsidiary rooms and the obligatory illumination passage. A tunnel led from it to the lower East battery, and hoists up through the officers' quarters fed the guns above.
The 64pdr in the Haxo casemate had an expense magazine underneath it, fed via a trapdoor in the floor, and subsidiary cartridge and shell stores situated in three traverses along the north facing rampart.
The main armament of the fort was concentrated on the south terreplein and consisted of three separately mounted 10" RML's, each built on top of a circular magazine provided with two hoists each, one for shell and one for cartridge. The battery of six 9" RML's had the guns mounted in pairs with an expense magazine in a traverse between each pair.
The only problem here would have been the replenishment of the expense magazines, under fire, which could have been a hazardous business. Luckily, these arrangements never had to be put to the test.
The total ammunition capacity for the fort was thought to have been 2,678 barrels of gun powder and 5000 pre loaded shells.
After completion, the fort became the training base for the Sussex Artillery Militia who had earlier been based at the Southover Depot in Lewes. There they practiced with 32pdr smooth bores on traversing platforms in the gun shed, pointing through holes cut through the rear wall to represent casemate embrasures.
The ammunition supply for the fort was kept in the Grand Magazine and the East Magazine, with expense magazines and ready use lockers for the individual guns. The Grand Magazine itself, which had a capacity of 1,356 barrels of black powder, was situated under the west rampart, and consisted of two chambers vented via the roof, and surrounded by an illumination passage. This was a narrow corridor with a number of glass fronted niches.
In these were placed the oil lamps that illuminated the magazine from outside, without the danger of fire. Opposite the exit from the magazine was the laboratory, built in under the large mound on the parade. This was a chamber, entirely panelled in wood, and also surrounded by an illumination passage. It was originally fitted with work benches, and in it, cartridge filling and fuse cutting operations were carried out.
The eastern magazine complex, situated under the officer’s casemates in the east rampart, had two functions. Firstly to supply to the 64pdr's on the lower east battery, and secondly the two Moncrieff guns on the rampart above. The magazine consisted of four main chambers with a number of subsidiary rooms and the obligatory illumination passage. A tunnel led from it to the lower East battery, and hoists up through the officers' quarters fed the guns above.
The 64pdr in the Haxo casemate had an expense magazine underneath it, fed via a trapdoor in the floor, and subsidiary cartridge and shell stores situated in three traverses along the north facing rampart.
The main armament of the fort was concentrated on the south terreplein and consisted of three separately mounted 10" RML's, each built on top of a circular magazine provided with two hoists each, one for shell and one for cartridge. The battery of six 9" RML's had the guns mounted in pairs with an expense magazine in a traverse between each pair.
The only problem here would have been the replenishment of the expense magazines, under fire, which could have been a hazardous business. Luckily, these arrangements never had to be put to the test.
The total ammunition capacity for the fort was thought to have been 2,678 barrels of gun powder and 5000 pre loaded shells.
After completion, the fort became the training base for the Sussex Artillery Militia who had earlier been based at the Southover Depot in Lewes. There they practiced with 32pdr smooth bores on traversing platforms in the gun shed, pointing through holes cut through the rear wall to represent casemate embrasures.
The Grand Magazine, Newhaven Fort
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Officers Quarters, Newhaven Fort.
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The Eastern Magazine supplying the two Moncrieff RML's.
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Two 11inch Mortars sited at elevation during the Crimean war. Newhaven Fort originally had two 13 inch versions of these mounted on top of the northern terreplein.
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MODERNISATION
In the 1890’s breech loading re-appeared in British artillery, as by then, adequate methods of sealing the breach had been developed. This obviated the necessity for guns to be run back for loading, thus paving the way for the recoil carriage. At the turn of the century, a vast programme of re-equipping our coastal defences was initiated and Newhaven was not omitted. Messrs B. Cooke and Co of London were the contractors and work commenced on the 17th November 1901. By the time it was finished, on the 28th February 1902, the sum of £6500 had been expended, and the character of the fort changed completely.
Gone were the 16 cumbersome RML's and the 2 mortars, to be replaced by 2x 6"breach loaders and 2x 12pdr quick firing guns. No.1 6" emplacement was built on top of the eastern part of the old south 9" battery with a magazine underneath feeding the gun by way of hoists for shell and cartridge. No.2 6" utilised the old circular magazine from No.8 10" RML, with some modifications and new hoists. Both guns were in concrete pits en barbette and open to the sky, although fitted with steel shields. The 12pdr QF guns replaced Nos.9 and 10 on the original plan. In September of 1901, it had been proposed to mount a 9.2"BL, but this was never carried out.
In addition to the main armament, 2x 6pdr QF guns were sited on the lower east battery to replace the 64pdrs. These were for the purposes of close in defence of the harbour mouth against torpedo boat attack, and could be depressed from -5° to -15°. These together with the 12pdr guns were removed in 1907 and a statement in the Fort Record Book dated 1938, states that their emplacements were in bad condition.
The main armament was officially described as 2x 6"BL Mk VII guns, on mountings 6"BL Mk 2, with a range of 12,600 yards, firing common shell and HE, charged by cordite.
In the 1890’s breech loading re-appeared in British artillery, as by then, adequate methods of sealing the breach had been developed. This obviated the necessity for guns to be run back for loading, thus paving the way for the recoil carriage. At the turn of the century, a vast programme of re-equipping our coastal defences was initiated and Newhaven was not omitted. Messrs B. Cooke and Co of London were the contractors and work commenced on the 17th November 1901. By the time it was finished, on the 28th February 1902, the sum of £6500 had been expended, and the character of the fort changed completely.
Gone were the 16 cumbersome RML's and the 2 mortars, to be replaced by 2x 6"breach loaders and 2x 12pdr quick firing guns. No.1 6" emplacement was built on top of the eastern part of the old south 9" battery with a magazine underneath feeding the gun by way of hoists for shell and cartridge. No.2 6" utilised the old circular magazine from No.8 10" RML, with some modifications and new hoists. Both guns were in concrete pits en barbette and open to the sky, although fitted with steel shields. The 12pdr QF guns replaced Nos.9 and 10 on the original plan. In September of 1901, it had been proposed to mount a 9.2"BL, but this was never carried out.
In addition to the main armament, 2x 6pdr QF guns were sited on the lower east battery to replace the 64pdrs. These were for the purposes of close in defence of the harbour mouth against torpedo boat attack, and could be depressed from -5° to -15°. These together with the 12pdr guns were removed in 1907 and a statement in the Fort Record Book dated 1938, states that their emplacements were in bad condition.
The main armament was officially described as 2x 6"BL Mk VII guns, on mountings 6"BL Mk 2, with a range of 12,600 yards, firing common shell and HE, charged by cordite.
Probably taken while training just after the Great War these two photographs show the much improved 6 inch BL QF guns which replaced the battery of 9 and 10 inch RML guns that were mounted on sea ward side of the fort.
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The same gun mounted in a different barbette.
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The same gun as it is today mounted in the same barbette.
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The much improved 6 inch BL Mk24 gun shown here with shield fitted, was used during the Second World War and three of these guns were mounted just west of the fort on Castle Hill.
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Throughout both world wars the fort saw very little action. Though manned it was used mainly as a look out station and with updated armament added, a defensive garrison. The advent of the aeroplane had made large earthwork forts obsolete and in the second world war in particular the German’s use of the Stuka dive bomber had proved how vulnerable to aerial attack these old Victorian forts were and as examples those that suffered severe pounding in Belgium are worthy of mention.
The fort was finally closed by the military in 1962 its usefulness over taken by the invention of guided missiles and the nuclear bomb.
The fort was finally closed by the military in 1962 its usefulness over taken by the invention of guided missiles and the nuclear bomb.
THE YEARS OF NEGLECT AND DERELICTION
After the private purchase of the fort it was clear that no one knew what to do with the site. Many schemes were put forward for using the fort as a public space and the site was eventually leased to a private developer. Despite local protest the site was to become a holiday camp and work began to demolish all the military fittings and buildings and to flatten the whole area and infill it with silt from the then new marina excavation. To give access to contractor's plant, the moat at the north-west corner was filled in, burying the counterscarp gallery and removing all trace of the Haxo casemate. It was during this time that the new houses on the site of the lower eastern gun battery were built over looking the harbour.
The project failed and the fort fell into a state of disrepair. By 1978 the destruction had been made worse by vandals and thieves who wrecked or stole much of what remained of value, leaving the area a dangerous and unofficial children’s playground.
But all was not lost; in 1979 the fort was declared a scheduled ancient monument and in so doing government money was released for its resurrection. Two local developers approached Lewes District Council with a proposal to transform the fort into a leisure centre. This was approved in 1981 and restoration work followed shortly afterwards. Care was taken to restore as much as possible with 800 truck loads of rubbish being removed from the interior and moat areas.
On the 7th April 1982, under the title “Fort Newhaven”, the general public were invited to a grand opening ceremony. A chequered period followed and by 1985 the running of the fort as a private venture had failed and the site was closed again.
Lewes District Council decided to run the fort themselves and in 1988 reopened it as a military heritage attraction. A large collection of artefacts had been accumulated to form the basis of a display area. The decision was also taken to reinstate the correct title to “Newhaven Fort”.
In the late 1990’s a £1 million lottery grant paid for the restoration of the entire fort and made good years of neglect on the buildings and roofs. The entrance bridge was also rebuilt and new chimneys faithfully replicated to Lt. Ardagh’s original specification.
At the time of writing, Newhaven Fort is flourishing as a military museum and receives thousands of visitors a year. Restoration work is never ending but it is today a popular historical visitor attraction for East Sussex.
After the private purchase of the fort it was clear that no one knew what to do with the site. Many schemes were put forward for using the fort as a public space and the site was eventually leased to a private developer. Despite local protest the site was to become a holiday camp and work began to demolish all the military fittings and buildings and to flatten the whole area and infill it with silt from the then new marina excavation. To give access to contractor's plant, the moat at the north-west corner was filled in, burying the counterscarp gallery and removing all trace of the Haxo casemate. It was during this time that the new houses on the site of the lower eastern gun battery were built over looking the harbour.
The project failed and the fort fell into a state of disrepair. By 1978 the destruction had been made worse by vandals and thieves who wrecked or stole much of what remained of value, leaving the area a dangerous and unofficial children’s playground.
But all was not lost; in 1979 the fort was declared a scheduled ancient monument and in so doing government money was released for its resurrection. Two local developers approached Lewes District Council with a proposal to transform the fort into a leisure centre. This was approved in 1981 and restoration work followed shortly afterwards. Care was taken to restore as much as possible with 800 truck loads of rubbish being removed from the interior and moat areas.
On the 7th April 1982, under the title “Fort Newhaven”, the general public were invited to a grand opening ceremony. A chequered period followed and by 1985 the running of the fort as a private venture had failed and the site was closed again.
Lewes District Council decided to run the fort themselves and in 1988 reopened it as a military heritage attraction. A large collection of artefacts had been accumulated to form the basis of a display area. The decision was also taken to reinstate the correct title to “Newhaven Fort”.
In the late 1990’s a £1 million lottery grant paid for the restoration of the entire fort and made good years of neglect on the buildings and roofs. The entrance bridge was also rebuilt and new chimneys faithfully replicated to Lt. Ardagh’s original specification.
At the time of writing, Newhaven Fort is flourishing as a military museum and receives thousands of visitors a year. Restoration work is never ending but it is today a popular historical visitor attraction for East Sussex.
(1) Sir William Armstrong 1810 – 1900 designed a number of guns for the military. It was largely his idea to make the first breech loading gun that would fire a shell rather than a solid iron ball. In doing this he paved the way for the modern artillery guns that would come into their own in the Great War
(2) The Haxo Casemate was named after its inventor Francois-Nicolas-Benoit Haxo, 1774 -1838. He had been a brilliant French General and military engineer during the French Revolution and was an adviser to Napoleon at Waterloo.
(2) The Haxo Casemate was named after its inventor Francois-Nicolas-Benoit Haxo, 1774 -1838. He had been a brilliant French General and military engineer during the French Revolution and was an adviser to Napoleon at Waterloo.
With thanks to: Newhaven Fort Museum. Newhaven Maritime Museum. English Heritage Aerial Photo Library.
Copyright Steve Sullivan, April 2020
